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Incorporation of Tibet into the People's Republic of China
The incorporation of Tibet into the People's Republic of China, also known in Chinese historiography as the Peaceful Liberation of Tibet (), is the process by which the People's Republic of China (PRC) gained control of the area comprising the present-day Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR). These same regions came under the control of China after attempts by the Government of Tibet to gain international recognition, efforts to modernize its military, negotiations between the Government of Tibet and the PRC, a military conflict in the Qamdo area of Western Kham in October 1950, and the eventual acceptance of the Seventeen Point Agreement by the Government of Tibet under Chinese pressure in October 1951. The Government of Tibet and Tibetan social structure remained in place in the TAR under the authority of China until the 1959 Tibetan uprising, when the Dalai Lama fled into exile and after which the Government of Tibet was dissolved.
== Background ==
In 1853, the British Empire conquered Sikkim, in 1865 invaded Bhutan, and in 1885 colonized Burma (Konbaung Dynasty), occupying by force the whole southern flank of Tibet. The Tibetan Ganden Phodrang regime, which was then under administrative rule of the Qing dynasty, remained the only Himalayan regime free of British influence. During most of the nineteenth century, the British government dealt with Tibet through the Chinese government which maintained a protectorate over Tibet through Qing representatives or Ambans. The British invasion of Tibet in 1903 caused the flight of the Dalai Lama to Mongolia and then to China. After the invasion the Treaty of Lhasa was signed in 1904 between the remaining authorities in Tibet and Colonel Younghusband, essentially converting Tibet into a British protectorate〔http://www.tibetjustice.org/materials/treaties/treaties10.html〕〔 states the Treaty of Lhasa was signed 'under constraint', because the Tibetans had just been defeated by the Younghusband expedition. Chinese sources such as call it an unequal treaty. Famous Tibetan historian described the event in detail without calling it an unequal treaty.〕 with some degree of independence. London, however, was aghast at the initiative undertaken by Younghusband and his sponsor, Lord Curzon, and sought to placate the Manchu Qing government by disavowing much of the settlement, resulting in the Anglo-Chinese Convention of 1906. After the fall of the Qing dynasty and the Xinhai Lhasa turmoil in 1912, the regions of Ü-Tsang and western Kham, comprising the present-day TAR were then under the control of the Government of Tibet, supervised by the British.
In 1913, shortly after the British invasion of Tibet in 1904, the creation of the position of British Trade Agent at Gyantse and the Xinhai Revolution in 1911, most of the area comprising the present-day Tibetan Autonomous Region (TAR) (Ü-Tsang and western Kham) became ''de facto'' independent from the rest of present-day China〔Shakya 1999 p.4〕 under a British protectorate, with the rest of the present day TAR coming under Tibetan Government rule by 1917.〔Feigon 1996 p.119〕 Some border areas with high ethnic Tibetan populations (Amdo and Eastern Kham) remained under Kuomintang or local warlord control.〔Shakya 1999 p.6,27. Feigon 1996 p.28〕 The TAR region is also known as "Political Tibet", while all areas with a high ethnic Tibetan population are collectively known as "Ethnic Tibet". Political Tibet refers to the polity ruled continuously by the Chinese and Tibetan governments since earliest times down to 1951, whilst ethnic Tibet refers to regions north and east where Tibetans historically predominated but where, down to modern times, Tibetan jurisdiction was irregular and limited to just certain areas.〔The classic distinction drawn by Sir Charles Bell and Hugh Richardson. See Melvin C. Goldstein,'Change, Conflict and Continuity among a community of Nomadic Pastoralists: A Case Study from Western Tibet, 1950-1990,' in Robert Barnett and Shirin Akiner, (eds.,) ''Resistance and Reform in Tibet,'' Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1994, pp. 76-90, pp.77-8.〕
At the time Political Tibet obtained ''de facto'' independence, its socio-economic and political systems resembled Medieval Europe.〔Shakya 1999 p.11〕 Attempts by the 13th Dalai Lama between 1913 and 1933 to enlarge and modernize the Tibetan military had eventually failed, largely due to opposition from powerful aristocrats and monks.〔Feigon 1996 p.119-122. Goldstein 1997 p.34,35.〕〔Shakya 1999 p.5,11〕 The Tibetan government had little contact with other governments of the world during its period of de facto independence,〔 with some exceptions, notably India, Great Britain, and the United States.〔Shakya 1999 p.7,15,16〕〔Goldstein 1997 p.37〕 This left Tibet diplomatically isolated and cut off to the point where it could not make its positions on the issues well known to the international community〔Goldstein 1997 p.36〕 and it was restricted by treaties that gave the British Empire authority over taxes, foreign relations and fortifications.
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